THE PEOPLE OF NIGERIA
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
Before the arrival of the colonial masters, the institutions or government, the position of the chiefs, the maintenance of law and order, function of the council of elders, the nature of its laws, fusion and separation of power and others. In other words, the various groups i.e. Yoruba, Igbo, Hausa, Fulani, The Tivs and others. All had their own systems of government which were either distinct from one another or greatly similar. The institutions to a large extent performed the same functions wherever they maybe found, but they differ markedly in names or outlook. This outward manifestation is no doubt a reflection of the ethnic and linguistic variability. Efforts would be devoted to sifting out the areas of convergence and similarity.
The main features’ of the pre-colonial traditional forms of government centered on the basic functions of government in the present day. These include the legislative, executive and judicial functions. At times, the three functions are performed by the same person(s) but at different periods. These functions are invariably cloaked religious sacredness so that people were made to obey through fear of the wrath of the gods.
The traditional ruler, who is the central figure in the pre-colonial systems of administration, was the Chief, Keing, Obi, Oba, Tor as the case may be. He is embodiment of all that was needed for effective administration. He was held in very high esteem among his people, because he was regarded as the representation of the gods on earth. At different times, he performed such as the executive, the legislative, the judicial and even the religious functions. The traditional ruler exercise tremendous power but they were not absolution. There were checks and balances built into the system of government.
The legislative function of the chief and his councils of chiefs include formulation of rules and laws and the declaration of customary laws. It is the duty of the traditional to make laws for the day to day ruling of the government in his domain.
The executive function of the traditional ruler includes appointment of his subordinate chiefs on a zonal basis or quarter allocation. Then subordinate chief would carry out the directives of the king. The age group (grade) and members of the community help to carry out community duties, and at times serve as a police force to enforce law. The chief –in-council, could declare war and make peace
The judicial function of the chief is exercised when he pronounces on disputes among members of the community. He settles disputes as occasion arises. He is the final court of appeal in matters that have been settled at the quarter of the level. Punishments involve banishment or death penalty.
The chief or king is also the chief priest in the community. He leads his people in all religious spheres, and uses religious power to support his legislative, judicial and executive function.
THE HAUSA
The Hausa city-state first emerged between 1000 and 1200 AD. The Hausa developed from a mixture of southern Saharan nomads and local mixed farmers of the northern Nigeria savannah. Their basic political unit was a compact walled village. The wooden stockade of early Hausa villages was to protect themselves from southern Saharan traders. The stockade covered a large area enclosing not only the principal dwellings of the settlement, but also a considerable content of cultivable land. In times of trouble the village enclosure could protect the Hausa of district and their livestock through a lengthy siege. As the population increased, village grouped together under the largest Hausa town. In time there developed into walled cities which became the capital of the states. Hausa, name of an African people of northwestern Nigeria and southwestern Niger. The Hausa are a racially diverse but culturally fairly homogeneous tribe numbering about 10 million to 15 million people.
Historically organized into a group of feudal city-states, the Hausa were conquered from the 14th century on by a succession of West African kingdoms—among them, Mali, Songhai, Bornu, and Fulani. The Hausa occasionally attained enough power and unity, however, to throw off foreign domination and to engage in local conquest and slave raiding themselves. In the opening years of the 20th century, with the Hausa on the verge of overthrowing the Fulani, the British invaded northern Nigeria and instituted their policy of indirect rule. Under the British the Fulani were supported in their political supremacy, and the Hausa-Fulani ruling coalition, still dominant in northern Nigeria, was confirmed. The beginnings of this coalition were, however, much earlier, because the Fulani governed by simply assuming the highest hereditary positions in the well-organized Hausa political system. Many of the ruling Fulani have now become culturally and linguistically Hausa.
Although the earliest Hausas were animists, Islam is now the dominant organized religion among all but several thousand Hausa, called Maguzawa. Hausa culture manifests a greater degree of specialization and diversification than that of most of the surrounding peoples. Subsistence agriculture is the primary occupation of most, but other skills such as tanning, dyeing, weaving, and metalworking are also highly developed. Hausas have long been famous for wide-ranging itinerant trading, and wealthy merchants share the highest social positions with the politically powerful and the learned.
The Hausa language is the largest and best-known member of the Chadic subfamily of the Afro-Asiatic family of languages. Hausa has borrowed freely from other languages, especially Arabic, and is adapting well to the demands of contemporary cultural change. It has become a common language for millions of non-Hausa West Africans, and sizable Hausa-speaking communities exist in each major city of West and North Africa as well as along the trans-Saharan trade and pilgrimage routes. An extensive literature and several periodicals in Romanized script have been produced since the beginning of British rule. An Arabic-based writing system, developed before the British conquest, is still in limited use.
ORIGIN
The origin of Hausa kingdom is traceable to the legendary Bayajjida who was said to have killed a notorious snake that prevents the people of Daura from fetching water. His brave act made the queen of Daura to fall in love with him. The result of the marriage was the birth of seven children who later formed the Hausa Bakwai and he was also believed to have concubine that also had for him seven children that equally formed the Hausa Banza.
CENTRAL ADMINISTRAATION
The Fulani took over the political leadership of the Habe (Hausa) states in the early 19th. The Jihad that followed this occupation was seen as religious as well as political. Othman Dan Fodio led the Fulani Jihad and took over the political leadership of the Hausa and establish Sokoto caliphate with outstanding centralized political system of government. He introduced a new system of selecting and appointing rulers described as Emirs to rule the caliphate. Each of the Emirs owed allegiance to Dan Fodio and his two representatives at Gwandu and Sokoto. The Hausa kingdom is divided into emirates. There were three levels of government in each emirate with their emir as the chief executive. The emirate was divided into district under a district head called Hakimi. The district head was in charge of all executive functions of the district, subject to the approval of the emir. Each district was further divided into villages with a village head for each village.
From the foregoing, it can be gleamed that the politician, social, religious and economic life were fused in the hands of the emirs. The Hausa government was highly centralized with little delegation of authority. Indeed, the emirs sanctioned all judicial, executive and legislative decisions from his appointed officials who serve as his advisers .The officials were
A...Sarkin Fada-The organizer of palace workers.
B. Galadima-The administrator of capital territory.
C... Waziri-The emir’s prime minister and adviser.
D... Madawaki-The commander-in-chief of armed forces.
E... Majji or Magaji-The treasure of government.
F...Sarkin Yandoka-The inspector-general of police responsible for internal security
G... Sarkin Ruwa-The regulator of the use of water resources.
H... Sarkin Pawa-The head of all butchers.
I...Yari-Chief superintended of prisons.
Supreme headquarters: Sokoto and Gwandu were the seats of the Emirs. The Emir of Gwandu controlled the western empire while the Emir of Sokoto controlled the Eastern Empire. The appointed Emirs in each of the emirates under their jurisdiction
District administration: Each Emir was divided into districts for administrative convenience. An official known as Hakimi was usually appointed by the Emir to administrate the district.
Village head: village heads were appointed by Hakimi to help in the collection of taxes e.g. cattle tax (Jangali) and the maintenance of law and order in the villages.
Legislative function: The supreme laws of the emirate were Islamic laws. The Emir had the capacity of making laws on matters which were not covered by Islamic law
Executive function: The Emir was authoritarian and had absolute powers, even though he had body advisers, yet he can ignore or accept their advice
Of great importance is the well organized tax system which guaranteed enough income for the central administration.
JUDICIARY
This was also based on the sharia. The emirate was divided into judicial decision. Each division had an alkali court headed by an alkali judge. When such judges are not found the emir gave authority to the district or village head to act.
The emir had the emir’s court at the headquarters, and was highest court of the emirate. It took cases of first instance on criminal matters, while civil cases could go to the court of appeal. However more civil cases like land dispute, boundaries could go as cases of first instance.
AGRICULTURE PRACTISE
The economic of the Hausa’s apart from the trade and manufacturing, is the. The existence of cattle’s, camel and donkeys help the Hausa farmers move his agric produce from the farm to the city for sale. The Hausa farmer plants cereals, groundnut, and cotton e.t.c. It is important to note that even the presence of the colonial masters do not negatively affect the production rather it developed to be the major means of livelihood of the people alter independence and by extension, export goods.
Food
The most common food that the Hausa people prepare consists of grains such as sorghum, millet, rice, or maize which are ground into flour for a variety of different kinds of food. The food is popularly known as tuwo in the Hausa language. Usually, breakfast consist of cakes made from ground beans which are then fried -- known as kosai -- or wheat flour soaked for a day then fried and served with sugar -- known as funkaso. Both of these cakes can be served with porridge and sugar known as koko. Lunch or dinner are usually served as heavy porridge with soup and stew known as tuwo da miya. The soup and stew are usually prepared with ground or chopped tomatoes, onions, and a local pepper sauce called daddawa. While preparing the soup, most of the times spices and other vegetables such as spinach, pumpkin, or okra are added to the soup. The stew is prepared with meat, which can include goat or cow meat but not pork due to Islamic religion restrictions. Beans, peanuts, and milk are also served as a complementary protein diet for the Hausa people.
Clothing
The Hausa people have a very restricted dressing code due to the fact of religious beliefs. The men are easily recognizable because of their elaborate dress which is a large flowing gown known as Baba Riga and a robe called a jalabia and juanni, see Senegalese kaftan. These large flowing gowns usually feature some elaborate embroidery designs around the neck. (See Grand boubou for more information). Men also wear colorful embroidered caps known as fullah, see kufi for more information. The females can be identified by their dressing codes in which they wear wrappers called abiah made with colorful cloth with a matching blouse, head tie and shawl.
RELIGION
Before the advent of Islam, the Hausa land and its people were worshippers of idols. The emergence of Islam and the jihad of uthman Dan Fodio put paid on the pagan structure thereby replacing with Islam.
Basically, the most popular and ethnic in majority of the Hausa land is the Hausa, so there are other smaller ethnic groups. The major division in the Hausa social structure is between the sarakuna and talakawa. I.e. The nobility and commoners respectively. There is however the, ascribe and achieve nobility i.e. the Karda and the shigege. Hausa have an ancient culture that had an extensive coverage area, and have long ties to the Arabs and other Islamized peoples in West Africa, such as the Mandé, Fulani and even the Wolof of Senegambia, through extended long distance trade. Islam has been present in Hausa land since the 14th century, but it was largely restricted to the region's rulers and their courts. Rural areas generally retained their animist beliefs and their urban leaders thus drew on both Islamic and African traditions to legitimize their rule. Muslim scholars of the early nineteenth century disapproved of the hybrid religion practiced in royal courts, and a desire for reform was a major motive behind the formation of the Sokoto Caliphate. It was after the formation of this state that Islam became firmly entrenched in rural areas. The Hausa people have been an important factor for the spread of Islam in West Africa.
Maguzawa, the animist religion, was practiced extensively before Islam. In the more remote areas of Hausa land Maguzawa has remained fully intact, but as one gets closer to more urban areas it almost totally disappears. It often includes the sacrifice of animals for personal ends, it is thought of as illegitimate to practice Maguzawa magic for harm. What remains in more populous areas is a “cult of spirit possession” known as Bori which still holds the old religion's elements of animism and magic.
THE FULANI
The Fulani or the Fula, as they are sometime called, are said to belong to the white population of the western Sudan. They conquer the Hausa land and establish the Fulani Empire in the northerner part of Nigeria; they still remain the ruling aristocracy. The Fulani are shy pastoral race, rather non-negro in appearance. They have straight hair, a straight nose, thin lips, straight physique and light reddish-brown skin colour. In medieval times their main home land was in the upper Senegal from where they gradually moved eastward, reaching Hausa land by the end of the 13th century. Today they live mostly on the futa jalon in the republic of Guinea, massina and in northern Nigeria. They are of two main groups, the Fulani Bororo or cattle Fulani and the Fulani gida or the town Fulani. The Bororo avoid mixture with the Negro populations among whom they dwell in a sort of symbolic relationship and have preserved the purity of their blood. The Fulani gida on the other hand are inter marrying the Negro Sudanese and have subsequently acquired Negro feature.
CLOTHIG
The traditional dress of the Fula in consists of long colorful flowing robes, modestly embroidered or otherwise decorated. Also characteristic Fula tradition is that of women using Henna around the mouth, resulting in a blackening around the lips. Fula ethics are strictly governed by the notion of pulaaku. Men wear long robes to the lower calves with trousers of cotton. Herdsmen wear the distinctive conical straw hat and a turban. Women wear long robes and turbans. They decorate themselves with necklaces, earrings, nose rings and anklets.
Traditional food The Fulani eat millet, milk and meat as staples. Millet is eaten in the morning, noon and night as a porridge with a sauce or stew which usually contains tomatoes, peppers, bone, meat, onion and water. Meat such as goat is usually eaten at special occasions as well as beef. A thick beverage similar to the Tuareg beverage eghajira is made by pounding goat cheese, milk, dates and millet.
HERDING
Fula are primarily known to be pastoralists, but are also traders in some areas. Most Fula in the countryside spend long times alone on foot, moving their herds; they were the only major migrating people of West Africa, though most Fula now live in towns or villages. Wealth is counted by how large the herd of cattle is and how many cattle. Long ago Fulani tribes used to fight over cattle
ORIGIN
The Fulani Bororo and Gida Fulani have common origin. While some have speculated over the origin of Fulani people, current linguistic and genetic evidence suggests an indigenous West African origin among the Peul. The vast majority of genetic lineages associated with them reflect those most commonly seen in other West Africans. Their language is also of West African origin, most closely related to that of the Wolof and Serer ethnic groups. Historical and archaeological records indicate that Peul-speakers have resided in western Africa since at least the 5th century A.D. as well. Interestingly, rock paintings in the Tassili-n-Ajjer suggests the presence of proto-Fulani cultural traits in the region by at least the fourth millennium B.C. Scholars specializing in Fulani culture believe that some of the imagery depicts rituals that are still practiced by contemporary Fulani people.
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
The Fulani belief in a highly centralized type of government. The Islamic jihad that engulf the western Sudan and later the Sokoto jihad of Uthman Dan Fodio led to the unification of the northern Nigeria under the leadership of the jihad leader. The success of the jihad led to the removal of the caliphate under the grand control of Emirs. The caliphate was divided into two, the western and the eastern part. Under each part are emirs who pay tribute to the caliphate. These Emirs perform the administrative function supported by the council of chiefs mostly mallams or Islamic clergy. In the Nigeria the Sultan of Sokoto is their overall head any thing he says must be done without question.
JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION
The Emir administer justice through the Kadis (Islamic jurists) using sharia laws. The source of this sharia laws is said to be the Holy Qur’an and the Hadith of the prophet Mohammed (S.A.W) which is belief to be the law of Allah people who steal with a real genuine reason, their one hand are cut off. The punishment for fornication was stroke of the cane while adultery was stone to death. Their laws were clearly stated.
AGRICULTURE
The Fulani are predominantly cattle rearers and they also grow cereals. Their lands create room for production of this crop rearing of cattle.
RELIGION
The majority if not all of the Fulani are Muslims. Religion comes first in any thing that was to be done in the Fulani kingdom. The level of your Islamic knowledge leads you to a high position. The eat islamically, do all thing islamically. The women and girl cover their hair.
THE IGBO LAND
Igbo people: Ndị Igbo are an ethnic group living chiefly in southeastern and south Nigeria. They speak Igbo, which includes various Igbo languages and dialects; today, Igbo people are among the largest and most influential ethnic groups in Nigeria.
Due to the effects of migration and the Atlantic slave trade, there are Igbo populations in countries such as Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea, as well as outside Africa. Their exact population outside Africa is unknown, but today many African Americans and Afro Caribbean’s are of Igbo descent. In rural areas in Africa, the Igbo are mostly farmers. Their most important crop is the yam; celebrations are held annually to celebrate its harvesting. Other staple crops include cassava, and taro
Before British colonialism, the Igbo were a politically fragmented group. There were variations in culture such as in art styles, attire and religious practices. Various subgroups were set according to clan, lineage, village affiliation and dialect. There weren't many centralized chieftaincy, hereditary aristocracy, or kingship customs except in kingdoms like that of the Nri, Arochukwu and Onitsha. This political system changed significantly under British colonialism in the 19th century; Eze (kings) were introduced into most local communities by Frederick Lugard as "Warrant Chiefs". The Igbo became overwhelmingly Christian under colonization. Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart is one of the most popular novels to depict Igbo culture.
In Igbo land, the family represents the first political authority. Each family has a leader called ‘Okpara’. The opera represents the group in external affairs, within the family the Okpara settle dispute between members, passes judgment as warranted in the circumstance of a given case, he stands as the intermediary between the livings and the ancestors, he communicate through rituals, with the ancestors on the benefit of the family.
In Igbo land, several families and the lineages form the political and social unit called the village.
HISTORY
Pottery dated at around 4500 BCE showing similarities with later Igbo work was found at Nsukka, along with pottery and tools at nearby Ibagwa; the traditions of the Umueri clan have as their source the Anambra valley, and in the 1970s the Owerri, Okigwe, Orlu and Awka divisions were generally supposed to have been from linguistic and cultural evidence "an Igbo heartland".
There is evidence that the ancestors of the Igbo people and most of their neighbors were the proto-Kwa group, which came from the African Great Lakes and Mountains of the Moon of East and Central Africa and settled at the old Sahara grasslands. It was the desertification of the Sahara that forced some of the Kwa people to migrate farther south to the north of the Niger Benue confluence and founded Nok.
Elements of the Kwa people migrated south of this confluence and later became the Igala, Idoma, Yoruba, Igbo, and possibly the Tiv peoples. The Kwa people's first areas of settlement in Igbo land was the North Central uplands (Nsukka-Afikpo-Awka-Orlu) around 5000 BCE Elements from the Orlu area migrated south, east, and northeast while elements from the Awka area migrated westwards across the Niger river and became the Igbo subgroup now known as the Anioma. The Igbo share linguistic ties with the Bini, Igala, Yoruba, and Idoma peoples.
NRI KINGDOM
The city of Nri is considered to be the foundation of Igbo culture. Nri and Aguleri, where the Igbo creation myth originates, are in the territory of the Umueri clan, who trace their lineages back to the patriarchal king-figure, Eri. Eri's origins are unclear, though he has been described as a "sky being" sent by Chukwu (God). He has been characterized as having first given societal order to the people of Anambra. Elizabeth Allo Isichei says "Nri and Aguleri and part of the Umueri clan, a cluster of Igbo village groups which traces its origins to a sky being called Eri."
Archaeological evidence suggests that Nri hegemony in Igbo land may go back as far as the ninth century, and royal burials have been unearthed dating to at least the 10th century. Eri, the god-like founder of Nri, is believed to have settled the region around 948 with other related Igbo cultures following after in the 13th century. The first Eze Nri (King of Nri), Ìfikuánim, followed directly after him. According to Igbo oral tradition, his reign started in 1043. At least one historian puts Ìfikuánim's reign much later, around 1225 AD.
Each king traces his origin back to the founding ancestor, Eri. Each king is a ritual reproduction of Eri. The initiation rite of a new king shows that the ritual process of becoming Ezenri (Nri priest-king) follows closely the path traced by the hero in establishing the Nri kingdom.
E. Elochukwu Uzukwu
The Kingdom of Nri was a religious-polity, a sort of theocratic state that developed in the central heartland of the Igbo region. The Nri had seven types of taboo's which included human (such as the birth of twins), animal (such as killing or eating of pythons), object, and temporal, behavioral, speech and place taboos. The rules regarding these taboos were used to educate and govern Nri's subjects. This meant that, while certain Igbo may have lived under different formal administration, all followers of the Igbo religion had to abide by the rules of the faith and obey its representative on earth, the Eze
Mathematics in traditional Igbo society is evident in their calendar, banking system and strategic betting game called Okwe. In their indigenous calendar, a week had four days; a month consisted of seven weeks and 13 months made a year. In the last month, an extra day was added. This calendar is still used in indigenous Igbo villages and towns to determine market days They settled law matters via mediators, and their banking system for loans and savings, called Isusu, is also still used.
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
Each village head holds an “ozo” title. All the ozo title holders belong to a council of elders which administers the village. At the village meeting, every adult is expected to participate. Among the ozo title holders, one of them was recognized as the most senior to the others. He was refer to as the Okpara and has the right to preside over the council of elders meetings, where issues affecting the people were discussed and implemented. The priest in the village is also an important political figure because through him the village community is able to communicate their gods.
The ozo title
The “ozo” title is very important and the highest position of honor that any Igbo man can hold. The title is not a hereditary one. It is the acknowledgement of the individual’s success in the community. The title could be gotten through wealth and influence within the community
JUDICIAL ADMINSTRATION
In Igbo land, the most powerful spirit “ala” plays a great role in the judicial functions. Offences such as homicide, murder and birth of abnormal children, are crimes against “ala” (earth goddess) and the priest of the ala inflict punishment.
However, the elders could settle minor disputes in the family. At times the whole village may constitute itself into a court for the purpose of settling dispute, Age grade also settle dispute among their members.
The village court is summoned by beating a drum, so any time there is important matter to be discussed, the village people are summoned. The age grade serve as law enforcement agencies, they serve as police, they make laws and could undertake labour for the community.
AGRICULTURE
The major pre-occupation of the Igbo people is farming, apart from the craftsmanship of the Igbo people, their land is suitable for root crops, no wonder they are great farmers of yam which made celebrate yam festive, they also produce and sell palm fruit.
RELIGION
Before the modern civilization, the Igbo people are worshipers of gods and goddess.
Today, the majority of the Igbo people are Christian, well over half of whom are Roman Catholics. There is a small population of Igbo Jews. The ancient Igbo religion and traditions are known as Odinani. In Igbo mythology, which is part of their ancient religion, the supreme God is called Chukwu ("great spirit"); Chukwu created the world and everything in it and is associated with all things on Earth. Chukwu is a solar deity. To the ancient Igbo, the Cosmos was divided into four complex parts: creation, known as Okike; supernatural forces or deities called Alusi; Mmuo, which are spirits; and Uwa, the world.
Chukwu is the supreme deity in Odinani as he is the creator in their pantheon and the Igbo people believe that all things come from him and that everything on earth, heaven and the rest of the spiritual world is under his control. A linguistic study of the Igbo language suggests the name Chukwu is a portmanteau of the Igbo words: Chi (spiritual being) and Ukwu (great in size). Alusi, alternatively known as Arusi or Arushi (depending on dialect), are minor deities that are worshiped and served in Odinani. There are lists of many different Alusi and each has its own purpose. When an individual deity is no longer needed, or becomes too violent, it is discarded. The Igbo believe in reincarnation. People are believed to reincarnate into families that they were part of while alive. Before a relative dies, it is said that the soon to be deceased relative sometimes give clues of who they will reincarnate as in the family. Once a child is born, he or she is believed to give signs of who they have reincarnated from. This can be through behavior, physical traits and statements by the child. A diviner can help in detecting who the child has reincarnated from. It is considered an insult if a male is said to have reincarnated as a female.
Children are not allowed to call elders by their names without using an honorific (as this is considered disrespectful). Children are required to greet elders when seeing them for the first time in the day as a sign of respect and good upbringing. Children usually add the Igbo honorifics Mazi or Dede before an elder's name when addressing them
BURIALS
After a death, the body of a prominent member of society is placed on a stool in a sitting posture and is clothed in the deceased's finest garments. Animal sacrifices may be offered to them and they can be well perfumed Burial usually follows within 24 hours of death. The head of a home is usually buried beneath the floor of his house.
Different types of deaths warrant different types of burials. This is affected by an individual's age, gender and status in society. For example, children are buried in hiding and out of sight; their burials usually take place in the early mornings and late nights. A simple untitled man is buried in front of his house and a simple mother is buried in her place of origin in a garden or a farm-area that belonged to her father. Presently, a majority of the Igbo bury their dead in the western way, although it is not uncommon for burials to be practiced in the traditional Igbo ways.
THE TIV’S
Tiv are an ethno-linguistic group or ethnic nation in West Africa. Tiv's traditional language is spoken by some people in Nigeria, with a few speakers in Cameroon. Most of the language's Nigerian speakers are found in Benue State of Nigeria. The language is also spoken in the Nigerian States of Plateau, Taraba, Nasarawa as well as the FCT Abuja. It is part of the Southern Bantoid Tivoid family, a branch of Benue-Congo and ultimately of the Niger-Congo phylum. The Tiv are also known as the Mitshi, Munchi, or Munshi. They depend on agricultural produce for commerce and life.
History
Most Tiv have a highly developed sense of genealogy, with descent being reckoned patrilineally. Ancestry is traced to an ancient individual named Tiv, who had two sons; all Tiv consider themselves a member either of MbaChongo (descendants of son Chongo) or of MbaPusu (descendants of son Ipusu). MbaChongo and MbaPusu are each divided into several major branches, which in turn are divided into smaller branches. The smallest branch, or minimal lineage, is the "ipaven". Members of an ipaven tend to live together, the local kin-based community being called the "tar". This form of social organization, called a segmentary lineage, is seen in various parts of the world, but it is particularly well known from African societies (Middleton and Tait 1958). The Tiv are the best known example from West Africa, as documented by Laura Bohannan (1952) and by Paul and Laura Bohannan (1953); in East Africa the best known example is the Nuer, documented by E.E. Evans-Pritchard (1940).The Tiv came into contact with European culture during the colonial period. During November 1907 to spring 1908, an expedition of the Southern Nigeria Regiment led by Lieutenant-Colonel Hugh Trenchard's came into contact with the Tiv. Trenchard brought gifts for the tribal chiefs. Subsequently, roads were built and trade links established Europeans and the Tiv.
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
The Tiv had no administrative divisions and no chiefs or councils. Leadership was based on age, influence, and affluence. The leaders' functions were to furnish safe conduct, arbitrate disputes within their lineages, sit on moots, and lead their people in all external and internal affairs.
The Tiv race is the fourth largest Ethnic group in Nigeria after the three Major Ethnic groups.
These socio-political arrangements caused great frustration to British colonial attempts to subjugate the population and establish administration on the lower Benue. The strategy of Indirect Rule, which the British felt to be highly successful in controlling Hausa and Fulani populations in Northern Nigeria, was ineffective in a segmentary society like the Tiv (Dorward 1969). Colonial officers tried various approaches to administration, such as putting the Tiv under the control of the near by Jukun, and trying to exert control through the councils of elders ("jir"); these met with little success. The British administration in 1934 divided the Tiv into Clans, Kindred, and Family Groups. The British appointed native heads of these divisions as well. These administrative divisions are gradually assuming a reality which they never had aboriginally.
AGRICULTURE
The Tiv are subsistence farmers whose main crops are yams, millet, and sorghum, all of which are eaten as porridge or are made more palatable by their combination in sauces and stews. Although goats and chickens are plentiful, few cattle are kept because of the tsetse fly. The polygamous Tiv family occupies a cluster of round huts surrounding a reception hut; brothers usually live next to one another.
THE YORUBA
The Yoruba form one of the larger language groups in the western part of the modern Nigeria. In modern usage, it refers to all those speaking the same language as the people of Oyo. In historic times the Yoruba-speaking peoples stretched from the savannah woodland west of the lower Niger to deep into the forest towards the coast. They were basically mixed farmers, hunters and traders living in small village communities.
State many formations among the Yoruba seem to have begun might of creation of Yoruba religion the “God of slay” Olorun, lowered the Yoruba founding ancestor, Odudwa, down to earth at Ife. There he founded the original Yoruba state and his sons dispersed to head the other Yoruba kingdoms. The ruler or ooni of Ife base his claim to kingship his reputed direct descent from the founding ancestor, Odudwa.
Historically, the relationship among the kingdoms was characterized by hostilities and intertribal wars. In fact it was the disunity which existed among them that aided the Fulani infiltration into Oyo kingdom, and the subsequent conquest. The most politically organized beamed. The central authority among the Yoruba sub-kingdoms was Oyo and it dominated the rest.
GENERAL HISTORY
The African peoples, who lived in the lower western Niger area, at least by the 4th century BC, were not initially known as the Yoruba, although they shared a common ethnicity and language group. Both archeology and traditional Yoruba oral historians confirm the existence of people in this region for several millennia.
Some contemporary historians contend that some Yoruba are not indigenous to Yoruba land, but are descendants of immigrants to the region. It is believed that an important man called Odudwa, (also known as Odudua, Odua or Eleduwa), who many believe to have arrived from an easterly direction, established a kingdom at 'Ile Ife' (also known as Ife) and thus became the first 'oba' (meaning 'king' or 'ruler' in the Yoruba language) of who today are known as the Yoruba people.
Between 1100 AD and 1700 AD, the Yoruba Kingdom of Ife experienced a golden age, the oba or ruler of Ife is referred to as the Ooni of Ife. It was then surpassed by the Yoruba Oyo Empire as the dominant Yoruba military and political power between 1700 AD and 1900 AD the (oba) or ruler of Oyo is referred to as the Alaafin of Oyo. Ife, however, remained and continues to be viewed as the spiritual homeland of the Yoruba. The nearby Benin Empire, with its capital in the modern day Benin City in modern day Nigeria was also a powerful force between 1300 and 1850 AD, the ruler of Benin City is referred to as the Oba of Benin.
Most of the city states were controlled by Obas (rulers) with various titles and councils made up of Oloye, guild of noble leaders or chiefs, and merchants. Different states saw differing ratios of power between the kingship and the chiefs' council. Some such as Oyo had powerful, autocratic monarchs with almost total control, while in others such as the Ijebu city-states, the senatorial councils held more influence and the power of the ruler or Ọba, referred to as the Awujale of Ijebu land was more limited.
COSMOGONIC ORIGIN MYTHOLOGY
Orisa'nla (The great divinity) also known as Ọbatala was the arch-divinity chosen by Olodumare, the supreme deity, to create solid land out of the primordial water that constituted the earth and populating the land with human beings. Ọbatala descended from heaven on a chain, carrying a small snail shell full of earth, palm kernels and a five-toed chicken. He was to empty the content of the snail shell on the water after placing some pieces of iron on it, and then to place the chicken on the earth to spread it over the primordial water.
Recently, historians have attributed this cosmological mythology to a pre-existing civilization at Ilė-Ifę which was invaded by militant immigrants from the east, led by a king named Odudwa. Odudwa and his group had been persecuted on the basis of religious differences and forced out of their homeland. They came to Ilė-Ifę where they subjugated the pre-existing Ugbo inhabitants (possibly Egba or Urhobo though often erroneously rendered as Igbo but unrelated to the present Igbo people), under the leadership of Oreluere (Ọbatala).
LOCATION OF YORUBA PEOLE IN NIGERIA
The Yoruba are the main ethnic group in the Nigerian federal states of Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun, Ondo, Osun, and Oyo; they also constitute a sizable proportion of Kwara and Kogi states as well as Edo.
SOCIAL CULTURAL PRATICE
Naming customs
The Yoruba take names seriously, for names have meaning and are believed to live out their meaning. Thus serious effort is put into naming a new baby. As they say, ile ni a n wo, ki a to so omo l'oruko. That is, we have to pay attention to the tradition and history of the family before we give names to a child. The meaning of this is that each family has its own tradition, and therefore its own historically determined name-group. The tradition may derive from the kind of profession that it is known for. For instance, a family of hunters may name their baby "Ogunbunmi" (the god of iron gives me this). Or it may derive from the kind of religion it practices. For instance, a family of Ifa worshippers will name their baby Falola (Ifa has honor). The bases on which names are given are much more varied as can be seen from the following examples taken from Samuel Johnson's The History of the Yorubas.
Oruko Amutorunwa (Preordained name)
- Amutorunwa (brought from heaven)
- Oruko - name
The Yoruba believe that a baby may come with pre-destined names. For instance, twins are believed to have natural-birth names. Thus the first to be born of the two is called Taiwo, a shortened form of Tayewo, meaning the taster of the world. This is to identify the first twin as the one sent by the other one to first go and taste the world. If he/she stays there, it follows that it is not bad, and that would send a signal to the other one to start coming. Hence the second to arrive is named Kehinde (late arrival). The child born to the same woman after the twins is called Idowu, and the one after this is called Alaba (female) or Idogbe (male). Ige is a child born with the legs coming out first instead of the head; and Ojo (male) or Aina (female) is the one born with the umbilical cord around his or her neck. When a child is conceived with no prior menstruation, he or she is named Ilori. Dada is the child born with curly hair; and Ajayi (nicknamed Ogidi Olu) is the one born face-downwards.
Other natural names include Abiodun (one born on a festival day or period), Bosede (one born on a holy day; Babatunde/Babatunji (meaning father has come back) is the son born to a family where a father has recently passed. This testifies to the belief in reincarnation. Iyabode, Yeside, Yewande, Yetunde, (mother has come back) is the female counterpart.
Oruko Abiso (Name given at birth)
These are names that are not natural with the child at birth but are given on either the seventh day of birth (for females) and ninth day of birth (for males). They are given in accordance with significant events at time of birth or with reference to the family tradition as has been mentioned above.
Examples of names given with reference to the family tradition include Ogundiran (Ogun has become a living tradition in the family); Ayanlowo (Ayan drumming tradition is honorable); Oyetoso (Chieftaincy is ornament); Olanrewaju (Honor is advancing forward); Olusegun (God has conquered the enemy).
Abiku Names
- Abi - birthed, or Bisexual - born
- Iku - death, or Ku - die / dead
The Yoruba believe that some children are born to die. This derives from the phenomenon of the tragic incidents of high rate of infant mortality sometimes afflicting the same family for a long time. When this occurs, the family devises all kinds of method to forestall a recurrence, including giving special names at a new birth. Such names reflect the frustration of the poor parents:
- Malomo (do not go again) Kosoko (there is no hoe anymore). This refers to the hoe that is used to dig the grave.
- Banjoko (stay with me)
- Orukotan (all names have been exhausted)
- Yemiitan (stop deceiving me)
- Kokumo (this will not die)
Pet Names
The Yoruba also have pet names or oriki. These are praise names, and they are used to suggest what the child's family background is or to express one's hope for the child: Akanbi-(one who is deliberately born); Ayinde (one who is praised on arrival); Akande (one who comes or arrives in full determination); Atanda (one who is deliberately created after thorough search). For females, Aduke (one who everyone like to bless), Ayoke (one who people are happy to bless), Arike (one who is blessed on sight), Atinuke or Abike (one that is born to be pampered).
Since it is generally believed that names are like spirits which would like to live out their meanings, parents do a thorough search before giving names to their babies.
Naming ceremonies
Naming ceremonies are performed with this in mind. The oldest family member is given the responsibility of performing the ceremony. Materials used are symbols of the hopes, expectations and prayers of the parents for the new baby. These include honey, kola, bitter kola, atare (alligator pepper), water, palm oil, sugar, sugar cane, salt, and liquor. Each of these has a special meaning in the world- view of the Yoruba. For instance, honey represents sweetness, and the prayer of the parents is that their baby's life will be as sweet as honey.
After the ritual, the child is named and other extended family members are given the honor to give their own names to the child. They do this with gifts of money and clothing. In many cases, they would want to call the child by the name they give him or her. Thus a new baby may end up with more than a dozen names.
Wedding
The child that is named will grow to adulthood. The Yoruba culture provides for the upbringing of the child by the extended family. In traditional society, the child is placed with a master of whatever craft the gods specify for him or her. Or he may take to the profession of the father, in the case of a boy, or the mother, in the case of a girl. The parents have the responsibility for his/her socialization into the norms of the larger society, in addition to giving him a means of livelihood. His or her wedding is also the responsibility of the parents.
Wedding ceremony is the climax of a process that starts with courtship. The young man identifies a young woman that he loves. He and his friends seek her out through various means, including playing pranks. The young man sends messages of interest to the young woman, until such a time that they are close enough to avoid a go-between (alarina). Then once they both express mutual love, they let their parents know about their love. The man's parents arrange to pay a visit to the prospective bride's parents. Once their consent is secured, the wedding day may be set. Prior to the wedding day, the payment of bride price is arranged. This secures the final consent of the bride's parents, and the wedding day is fixed. Once the day has been fixed through consultation with the Orisa, the bride and bridegroom are warned to avoid travelling out of town, including to the farm. This is to prevent any mishap. The wedding day is a day of celebration, eating, drinking and dancing for parents, relations, the new husband and wife and their friends and relations. Marriage is not considered to be only a union of the husband and wife, it is also seen among the Yoruba as the union of the families on both sides.
Funeral
In Yoruba thought, death is not the end of life; it is rather a transition from one form of existence into another form. The ogberis (ignorant folks) fear death because it marks the end of an existence that is known and the beginning of one that is unknown. Immortality is a dream of many, as Eji-ogbe puts it: Mo dogbogbo orose; Ng ko ku mo; Mo digba oke; Mo le gboin. (I have become an aged ose tree; I will no longer die; I have become two hundred hills roled into one; I am immovable.)
The Yoruba also pray for many blessings, but the most important three are wealth, children and immortality: ire owo; ire omo; ire aiku pari iwa. There is a belief in an afterlife that is a continuation of this life, only in a different setting, and the abode of the dead is usually placed at a place just outside of this abode, and is sometimes thought of as separated by a stream. Participation in this afterlife is conditional on the nature of one's life and the nature of one's death. This is the meaning of life: to deliver the message of Olodumare, the supreme creator by promoting the good of existence. For it is the wish of the deity that human beings should promote the good. Hence it is insisted that one has a good capacity for moral uprightness and personhood. Personhood is an achieved status judged by the standard of goodness to self, to the community and to the ancestors. As people say: Keni huwa gbedegbede; keni lee ku pelepele; K'omo eni lee n'owo gbogboro L'eni sin. (Let one conduct one' life gently; that one may die a good death; that one's children may stretch their hands over one's body in burial.)
The achievement of a good death is an occasion for celebration of the life of the deceased. This falls into several categories. First, children and grand children would celebrate the life of their parent who passed and left a good name for them. Second, the Yoruba are realistic and pragmatic about their attitude to death. They know that one may die at a young age. The important thing is good life and good name. As the saying goes: Ki a ku l'omode, ki a fi esin se irele eni; o san ju ki a dagba ki a ma ni adie irana. (If we die young, and a horse is killed in celebration of one's life; it is better than dying old without people killing even chicken to celebrate our life.)
It is also believed that ancestors have enormous power to watch over their descendants. Therefore, people make effort to remember their ancestors on a regular basis. This is ancestor veneration, which some have wrongly labeled as ancestor worship. It is believed that the love that exists between a parent and a child here on earth should continue even after death. And since the parent has only transformed to another form of existence, it should be possible for the link to wax stronger.
CENTRAL ADMINISTRATION
An Oba is responsible for the administration of the major towns in Yoruba land, while chiefs administered the smaller towns. The Oba of ile-ife is called the ‘Ooni‘Oyo was the ‘Alafin’while that of Abeokuta was the Alake and so many others.
However the most popular and central in the administration of Yoruba land was the Alaafin of Oyo who head the Oyo kingdom or Empire. Seven-man hereditary kingmakers known as the Oyomesi elected the Alaafin of Oyo from the royal family of the late king. The seven-man that made up the Oyomesi include the-Bashorun, Saamu, Alapini, Ashipa, Agbakin, Laguna and Akiniku. The son of advisers was called “Ilari” his chief minister the chief minister was the lineages. The Oba must agree with his council of adviser. If he must ifa
There was check and balance in the Oyo administration structure. The chief-in-council made decision which the Oba was bound to sanction. They recommended suicide for the Oba should the later be okayed by the Oba. The Oba could derank a chief or even ban him from attending palace meeting.
The ogboni also serve as the check on the excess of the Oyomesi.
Monarchies were a common form of government in the Yoruba-speaking region, but they were not the only approach to government and social organization. The numerous Ijebu city-states to the west of Oyo and the Egba communities, found in the forests below Ọyọ's savanna region, were notable exceptions. These independent polities often elected an Ọba, though real political, legislative, and judicial powers resided with the Ogboni, a council of notable elders.
During the internecine wars of the 19th century, the Ijebu forced citizens of more than 150 Egba and Owu communities to migrate to the fortified city of Abeokuta, where each quarter retained its own Ogboni council of civilian leaders, along with an Olorogun, or council of military leaders, and in some cases its own elected Obas or Baales. These independent councils then elected their most capable members to join a federal civilian and military council that represented the city as a whole.
Commander Frederick Forbes, a representative of the British Crown writing an account of his visit to the city in an 1853 edition of the Church Military Intelligencer, described Abeokuta as having "four presidents", and the system of government as having "840 principal rulers or 'House of Lords,' 2800 secondary chiefs or 'House of Commons,' 140 principal military ones and 280 secondary ones." He described Abeokuta and its system of government as "the most extraordinary republic in the world."
LEADERSHIP
Gerontocratic leadership councils that guarded against the monopolization of power by a monarch were a proverbial trait of the Egba, according to the eminent Ọyọ historian Reverend Samuel Johnson, but such councils were also well-developed among the northern Okun groups, the eastern Ekiti, and other groups falling under the Yoruba ethnic umbrella. In Ọyọ, the most centralized of the pre-colonial kingdoms, the Alaafin consulted on all political decisions with a prime minister (the Basọrun) and the council of leading nobles known as the Ọyọ Mesi.
JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION
The Oba’s court composes of the Oba and his senior chiefs were the highest court of the kingdom. The court tried serious case like murder, manslaughter, burglary and violent assault. If one was convicted of such offences, one receives such punishment as banishment, death or heavy fines. The senior chiefs were also allowed to cross examine such Oba was to deliver the trial judgment outside the Oba’s palace, the senior chiefs and baales tried minor civil cases. All appeal from such trials went to the Oba. Some designated age grades act as police and did stop people from committing certain offences. They also arrest those offenders that refuse to abide by the rules and regulations.
Agriculture practice
Yoruba states produce surplus food. It was founded on the borders of savannah and the forest. There the soil was fertile and the rainfall high. The varied environment was suitable for a range of root, cereal crops and rising of domestic animals. As artist the people of Ife exchange food, kolanut and ivory for copper to people of the Sahel.
RELIGION
The Yoruba are a deeply religious people, but they are also pragmatic and tolerant about their religious differences. Basically before the influence of the Christians’ missionaries, paganism was practiced, so many gods were worshiped. these include ogun (god of iron), orumila, Ọbatala, i.e. god of divinity and creation, osun, sango (god of fire) and many others. Thus, it is to the credit of traditional Yoruba tolerance that there has been no religious persecution or war among them since the coming of Christianity and Islam, the two proselytizing religions.
Traditional Yoruba religious practice focuses on the worship of Orisa- a pantheon of gods which include Ifa, Ogun, Ọbatala, Oya, Osun, and Sango. They have at the head of this pantheon, Olodumare regarded as the supreme deity. Each orisa has a specialty, with Ifa, whose other name is Orumila as the pathfinder. It is Ifa who knows what destiny each person carries into the world, including which Orisa he/she is destined to worship. Therefore, it is expected that when a child is born, the parents would make effort to find out from Ifa what the child's destiny is. Once it is revealed, the parents are expected to guide the child and to continue to offer sacrifices to the gods so that his or her good destiny is not thwarted.
The various orisa, as has been said, have their special areas of operation. Ogun is the god of iron and war and traveling. It is Ogun who used cutlass to clear the path when the Orisa were first coming from their abode to this world. For this reason, it is believed, the Orisa respect him and make him to have the only crown they brought with them. But Ogun is too aggressive for a settled life. Therefore he left for the top of a hill from where he went on hunting spree and war exploits until he got tired. When he decided to go back to town (Ile Ife) it was difficult for him to get a house to enter because his face was dreadful. Ojo ti Ogun nti ori-oke sokale, aso ina l'o mu b'ora, ewu eje l'o wo. The day ogun was coming down from the hill, his face was like fire, and he was clothed in blood. Ogun is called upon for journey mercies, for bountiful hunting, and for victory at war. It is also Ogun that puts finishing touches to the work of creation by Ọbatala. It is Ogun that is responsible for circumcision; facial marks, and tattoos. Other orisa have to pay respect to Ogun on account of his expertise.
Ọbatala is the god of creation. As mentioned above, the work of creation was to have been fully carried out by Ọbatala, but Oduduwa is believed to have completed it when Ọbatala got drunk. Still Ọbatala succeeded in making the physical or bodily parts of human beings, and this is why he is greeted as alamo rere-the one who uses good clay. Ọbatala is also known as Orisa nla (great divinity) because he is next to Olodumare. Since he is responsible for the physical part of human beings, which is believed to be made out of clay, Orisa nla is also credited with the making of special people as his devotees. Thus what would otherwise be regarded as deformities are considered as deliberate action on the part of Orisa nla.
References
v Robinson, David, Muslim Societies in African History (Cambridge, 2004), p141
v Adeline Masquelier. Prayer Has Spoiled Everything: Possession, Power, and Identity in an Islamic Town of Niger. Duke University Press (2001) ISBN 9780822326397
v Joshua Project, Peoples Listing, Hausa". http://www.joshuaproject.net/peoples.php?rop3=103733. Retrieved 2007-03-04.
v Ndukwe, Pat I., Ph.D. (1996). Fulani. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc.
v
MADONNA UNIVERSITY
OKIJA, IHIALA
P.M.B 407
ANAMBRA STATE
QUESTION
Write all you know about traditional administration in the following ethnic groups in Nigeria.
(a) The Hausa
(b) The Fulani
(c) The Igbo
(d) Tivs kingdom
(e) The Yoruba
WRITTEN BY
NAME: BELLO SHERIF ADEGOKE
REG NO: PA/O7/130
DEPARMENT: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
COURSE: TRADITIONAL ADMINSTRATION
LEVEL: 300
FACULTY: SOCIAL SCIENCE